Fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of an argument. Recognizing these fallacies is crucial for constructing sound arguments and critically evaluating others’ claims. Below is a list of common logical fallacies, categorized for clarity:

Category	Fallacy	Description	Example
Relevance Fallacies	Ad Hominem	Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.	“You can’t trust John’s opinion on climate change because he’s not a scientist.”
	Straw Man	Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.	“Person A: We should have stricter gun control laws. Person B: Person A wants to take away all our guns and leave us defenseless.”
	Red Herring	Introducing irrelevant information to distract from the actual issue.	“Why worry about the environment when there are so many people unemployed?”
	Appeal to Ignorance	Claiming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false, or vice versa.	“No one has proven that aliens don’t exist, so they must be real.”
	False Dilemma	Presenting two options as the only possibilities when more exist.	“You’re either with us or against us.”
Ambiguity Fallacies	Equivocation	Using a word with multiple meanings in different senses within the same argument.	“The sign said ‘fine for parking here,’ so I thought it was okay to park.”
	Amphiboly	Using ambiguous grammar to mislead or misrepresent the truth.	“The professor said on Monday he would give a lecture on drug abuse in the college gym.” (Unclear whether the lecture or drug abuse is in the gym.)
Presumption Fallacies	Begging the Question	Assuming the truth of the conclusion within the premises.	“Reading is fundamental because it’s essential.”
	Hasty Generalization	Making a broad generalization based on a small or unrepresentative sample.	“My two friends got food poisoning from that restaurant; it must have terrible hygiene.”
	False Cause	Assuming that because two events occur together or sequentially, one causes the other.	“Every time I wash my car, it rains. Therefore, washing my car causes rain.”
	Slippery Slope	Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events.	“If we allow students to redo assignments, next they’ll want to retake entire courses, and eventually degrees will become meaningless.”
	Circular Reasoning	The conclusion is included in the premise, often reworded.	“I’m trustworthy because I always tell the truth.”
Emotional Appeals	Appeal to Emotion	Manipulating emotions to win an argument rather than using valid reasoning.	“Think of the children! We must ban all violent video games.”
	Bandwagon	Arguing that something is true or right because everyone else believes it or does it.	“Everyone is investing in this stock; it must be a good investment.”
	Appeal to Tradition	Arguing that something is better or correct simply because it is older or traditional.	“We’ve always done it this way, so it must be the best way.”
Faulty Analogies	False Analogy	Making a comparison between two things that aren’t truly comparable.	“Employees are like nails; just as nails must be hit on the head to work, so must employees.”
Authority Fallacies	Appeal to Authority	Asserting that a claim is true because an authority or expert says it is, without other supporting evidence.	“A famous actor says this diet works, so it must be effective.”
Other Fallacies	Tu Quoque	Dismissing someone’s argument because they are being hypocritical.	“You say smoking is bad, but you smoke too, so your argument is invalid.”
	Composition/Division	Assuming that what’s true for the part is true for the whole (composition), or what’s true for the whole is true for the parts (division).	“Each member of the team is excellent, so the team as a whole must be excellent.” (Composition) / “The team is excellent, so each member must be excellent.” (Division)
	Appeal to Nature	Arguing that because something is ‘natural,’ it is therefore valid, justified, or good.	“Herbal remedies are natural, so they must be better than synthetic drugs.”
	Gambler’s Fallacy	Believing that past random events affect the probabilities in future random events.	“I’ve flipped heads five times in a row; the next flip is more likely to be tails.”
	Middle Ground	Assuming that the middle position between two extremes must be correct.	“Some say the earth is flat, others say it’s round; the truth must be somewhere in between.”
	No True Scotsman	Making an appeal to purity to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of an argument.	“No true Scotsman would put sugar in his porridge.”
	Loaded Question	Asking a question that contains a presupposition, trapping the respondent.	“Have you stopped cheating on your exams?” (Assumes the person has been cheating.)
	Appeal to Consequences	Arguing that a belief is false because it implies something you’d rather not believe.	“If we accept that climate change is real, it means we have to change our lifestyle. Therefore, climate change isn’t real.”
	Personal Incredulity	Asserting that because something is difficult to understand, it’s not true.	“I can’t imagine how humans evolved from single-celled organisms; therefore, evolution is false.”
	Genetic Fallacy	Judging something as good or bad based on where it comes from or its origins.	“That idea came from a convicted felon, so it must be false.”
	Appeal to Hypocrisy	Countering criticism with criticism rather than addressing the argument.	“